Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge

Pelican Island, Sebastian Florida

Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge, located within the central Indian River lagoon in Sebastian, Florida, is the birthplace of the National Wildlife Refuge System. What happened on this tiny island that made it so important, that it became a catalyst for what is now the world’s largest network of lands and waters managed for fish and wildlife – the National Wildlife Refuge System?

By the end of the 1800s, plume hunters, egg collectors, and vandals had nearly exterminated all the egrets, herons, and spoonbills from Pelican Island. Paul Kroegel (who was to later become the first Refuge Manager) protected the last nesting brown pelicans on the east coast of Florida and petitioned ornithologists and naturalists to help him. At the urging of researchers, concerned citizens, the Audubon Society, and the American Ornithologists’ Union, President Theodore Roosevelt signed an Executive Order that set aside Pelican Island as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds on March 14, 1903, thus establishing the first national wildlife refuge and the National Wildlife Refuge System.

Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge supports important bird rookeries, key fish spawning sites, and a globally important juvenile sea turtle nursery. Primarily comprised of lagoonal waters, the refuge includes aquatic, transitional, and upland habitats supporting a diversity of species, including 14 federally listed threatened and endangered species. This complex ecological system also supports hundreds of species of birds, fish, plants, and mammals. When the refuge was established at the beginning of the 20th century, as many as 10,000 brown pelicans occupied the tiny 5.5-acre Pelican Island as a last stronghold for this species along the east coast of Florida. Today, the number of brown pelicans using the Island has dwindled in magnitude to less than 100 nesting pairs. And today at least 16 different bird species nest on Pelican Island proper, including brown pelicans, wood storks, egrets, herons, ibises, anhingas, oystercatchers, and cormorants. Beyond the tiny rookery of Pelican Island proper, over 130 species of birds use the refuge as a rookery, roost, feeding ground, and/or loafing area. Further, federally protected West Indian manatees and sea turtles inhabit the lagoonal waters of the refuge, alongside some 30,000 annual boaters. A growing human population, along with ongoing development and other human activities, currently threaten the fragile, but highly productive waters of the Indian River Lagoon and the refuge.

Beyond being the birthplace of the National Wildlife Refuge System, the refuge is also designated as a National Historic Landmark (1963), one of the smallest units of the National Wilderness Preservation System (with a 5.5-acre Wilderness Area encompassing Pelican Island proper) (1970), and a Wetland of International Importance (1993). The refuge is also listed as a candidate Marine Protected Area (2000). Facilities have been constructed on the eastern side of the refuge on the barrier island to view the historic Pelican Island rookery and interpret the natural and cultural history of the refuge, the area, and the Refuge System.

Ecosystem

Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is part of the South Florida Ecosystem. Comprising one of the 52 ecosystems around the country, the Fish and Wildlife Service’s South Florida Ecosystem encompasses more than 26,000 square miles, 19 southern Florida counties, and over 7 million people. The South Florida Ecosystem has undergone numerous human disturbances, including alteration of hydroperiod, fire history, and drainage patterns. Developing and dredging the canal system and expanding agricultural operations have eliminated and diminished natural systems. Exotic species such as Old World climbing fern, melaleuca, Australian pine, and Brazilian pepper are further contributing to wildlife population and habitat declines. Over the last 50 years, the South Florida Ecosystem has undergone dramatic changes, which are largely attributed to various human activities and growth.

Despite the ongoing landscape alteration and rapidly expanding population, the scrub, hardwood hammocks, cypress swamps, salt marshes, mangrove islands, coral reefs, and seagrass beds of south Florida support one of the most ecologically diverse systems on the planet. The majority of the remaining wildlife and habitats of the South Florida Ecosystem are found on national interest lands, including sixteen national wildlife refuges, three national parks, one national preserve, and one national marine sanctuary. Despite tremendous human development, the South Florida Ecosystem supports more than 600 rare or imperiled species, where 68 are federally listed as threatened or endangered, including 8 mammals, 13 birds, 10 reptiles, 2 invertebrates, and 35 plants.

Partners

A provision of the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 and subsequent agency policy provide that the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), aka "the Service", shall ensure timely and effective cooperation and collaboration with other federal agencies and state fish and wildlife agencies during the course of acquiring and managing refuges. For Pelican Island Refuge, state fish and wildlife management is administered by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection. These state agencies are charged with enforcement responsibilities relating to migratory birds, trust species, and fisheries, as well as with management of natural resources of the state.

Since the 1960s, the State of Florida has been an important partner with the Service at Pelican Island Refuge (by leasing open waters and islands of the state to the Service, comprising the majority of property within the refuge). The State of Florida has helped champion the refuge through various efforts, including participation in the Pelican Island Working Group, an active working group comprised of a variety of public and private partners dedicated to improving the refuge and the resources it protects. For example, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and Indian River County have been invaluable partners in securing and funding habitat restoration activities on the refuge. Various agencies within the state government have also participated in a mix of other refuge projects, including the planning process to develop the 2006 Comprehensive Conservation Plan for the refuge. The State of Florida’s participation and contribution throughout this comprehensive conservation planning process provide for ongoing opportunities and open dialogue to improve the ecological sustainment of fish and wildlife in Florida. An integral part of the comprehensive conservation planning process is integrating common mission objectives, where appropriate.

Purposes and Designations

Currently over 5,400 acres, Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge was established in 1903 on 5.5 acres “as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds” through an unnumbered Executive Order and expanded in 1909 by Executive Order 1014. The Pelican Island Refuge “shall be administered by him (the Secretary of the Interior) directly or in accordance with cooperative agreements and in accordance with such rules and regulations for the conservation, maintenance, and management of wildlife, resources thereof, and its habitat thereon” (Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act 16 USC §664). The refuge shall “conserve fish, wildlife, and plants, including those which are listed as endangered species or threatened species” (Endangered Species Act 16 USC §1534). Further, the refuge serves “...the development, advancement, management, conservation, and protection of fish and wildlife resources... (Fish and Wildlife Act 16 USC §742) ...for the benefit of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, in performing its activities and services...” (Fish and Wildlife Act).

Later, the Refuge Recreation Act was also applied to the refuge “...for (1) incidental fish and wildlife oriented recreational development, (2) the protection of natural resources, (3) the conservation of endangered species or threatened species....” (Refuge Recreation Act 16 USC §460k-1). The existence of the refuge serves the “...conservation, management, and restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats for the benefit of present and future generations of Americans....” (National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act 16 USC §668dd). Finally, the Pelican Island Wilderness Area “...shall be administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them (wilderness areas) unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness, and so as to provide for the protection of these areas, the preservation of their wilderness character, and for the gathering and dissemination of information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness....” (Wilderness Act 16 USC 1 1 21).

On October 23, 1970 under Public Law 91-504, the 5.5-acre Pelican Island became one of the smallest wilderness areas in the National Wilderness Preservation System. All management activities occurring within the original 5.5-acre wilderness boundary must meet the standards and criteria set forth in the Wilderness Act. Currently, about 3.3 acres of the wilderness area are submerged due to the erosion of Pelican Island proper.

The refuge is also designated as a National Historic Landmark, a Wetland of International Importance, and a candidate Marine Protected Area. Because of its status as the first federal area set aside specifically to protect wildlife, the refuge was designated a National Historic Landmark by the Secretary of the Interior in 1963. Thirty years later in 1993, Pelican Island Refuge was recognized by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands as a Wetland of International Importance for its support of endangered species and large assemblages of migratory birds, as well as for its support of species at critical stages in their biological development. In 2000, the refuge was listed as a candidate Marine Protected Area for its protection of estuarine waters.

Ecological Threats and Problems

Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is in a critical location to serve and support biological diversity in the Indian River Lagoon and South Florida. Human impacts and underlying causes and threats to biological diversity include:

• the direct loss of habitat due to development and other human activities;
• the simplification and degradation of remaining habitats, including habitat alteration and fragmentation;
• the loss and decline of species and biological diversity;
• the effects of constructing navigation and water diversion facilities;
• the introduction and spread of exotic, nuisance, and invasive species;
• the lack of environmental regulation and enforcement; and
• the cumulative effects of land and water resource development projects.

As a result of these causes and threats, many species endemic to the southern Indian River Lagoon have become extinct, endangered, or threatened under the Endangered Species Act. The refuge supports at least 14 federally threatened or endangered species. Further, the refuge also supports 45 species listed by the State of Florida as either threatened, endangered, special concern, or commercially exploited; 54 species listed by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals; 54 species, 3 communities, and 2 sites listed by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory; and 11 species listed by the Audubon Watch List for Florida. (See Appendix IV for a complete listing of these species.) Nationally, 1,262 species are federally listed, with 986 listed as endangered (388 animals and 598 plants) and 276 listed as threatened (129 animals and 147 plants). Further, 257 species are listed as candidates for federal listing.

Habitats in and around the refuge serve a variety of species and are highly important in this developed landscape. A number of biodiversity hotspots are located in and around the refuge. These hotspots are areas with a high degree of overlap for 54 kinds of declining wildlife species with known occurrences of flora, fauna, and natural communities. St. Sebastian River State Buffer Preserve (including impoundments and wetlands), seagrass beds in and around the refuge, and privately owned mangrove islands south of Wabasso bridge are hotspots identified as the most critical. Adjacent conservation lands are also critical to many species of wildlife that also use the refuge (Figure 4).

The high productivity and biological diversity of Pelican Island Refuge have been altered by [[:Category:Human Impact|human impact], which, in turn, have altered the way the Indian River Lagoon functions. The refuge faces ongoing threats from contaminated air, soil, and water; erosion and sedimentation; and cumulative habitat impacts from land and water resource development activities. Rapid population growth and development have resulted in long-term negative effects to the Pelican Island Refuge. By the year 2010, about one million people will reside in the Indian River Lagoon area. Terrestrial habitats that once dominated upland areas include hardwood hammocks, which are very important for mammals and migratory birds. Urbanization and agricultural operations (e.g., large citrus groves) now dominate land uses in upland areas. Stormwater inputs, saltwater exchange through fortified ocean inlets, pollution, habitat destruction, and continual land and water use practices are constant threats to fish and wildlife.

The reduction of ecological function and connection is a major problem in areas where the modification of inland waterways has caused major declines in fisheries and aquatic resource productivity. Beaches, seagrass beds, salt marshes, mangrove islands, and hammocks are subject to further loss or elimination. Causeways, the Intracoastal Waterway, beach and shoreline development, and fishing activities dominate aquatic uses in transitional and aquatic communities and habitats. Causeway construction, canal dredging, and commercial agricultural operations have contributed to the long-term loss and elimination of aquatic resources and habitats. Wetlands (former salt marshes and mangrove swamps) on the refuge were converted and managed to aid in mosquito control. Until recently, these impoundment areas were cut off from the rest of the Lagoon, isolating fish and other aquatic organisms from accessing this highly productive area. Reconnecting impoundments and restoring natural flow and biological interchange, while maintaining mosquito control and migratory bird habitat, are challenges to resource managers. As water quality declines in the Lagoon due to sediment and nutrient runoff, seagrasses decline, resulting in declines in fish and mollusk production.

Erosion of Pelican Island proper has increased management concerns of the Fish and Wildlife Service regarding the primary impacts from boat wakes and the potential for secondary impacts from dredging a deeper channel near the refuge. The rapid increase in coastal development is also of major concern. With the continual loss of Pelican Island proper, long-term impacts are experienced by many declining species. Predominantly due to the growth of the human population and the associated increases in public use activities and wildlife and habitat impacts and disturbance, the land base of Pelican Island proper (i.e., the original 5.5-acre rookery) decreased from 1943 to 1996 by more than 50 percent to 2.2 acres (Figure 5). Erosion predictions show grave consequences for this rookery island (Figure 6). However, current shoreline stabilization efforts have increased the size of the Island to 2.8 acres (as of 2004).

Habitat conditions on Pelican Island have been changing over the last century. In 1903, when the refuge was established, the 5.5-acre Island functioned as a brown pelican rookery with some 10,000 pelicans counted during the peak nesting season. At that time, Paul Kroegel focused on keeping market hunters and egg collectors from decimating the population. One hundred years later, more than a dozen species nest on the Island with less than 100 nesting pairs of pelicans on the Island in the spring. Table 1 and Figure 7 clearly show a decline for the numbers and types of species nesting on Pelican Island proper. From 1910 to 1999, the total number of nesting pairs has decreased nearly 94 percent. Even from 1995 to 1999, the total number of nesting pairs has decreased by nearly 44 percent. This decline is related to the erosion of the rookery island and the general decline of wildlife species in the South Florida Ecosystem. Today, managers focus on limiting disturbance to the rookery and restoring and stabilizing the shoreline from further loss.

On many of the lagoonal islands and within other refuge habitats, exotic plants have displaced the majority of the native species. Problem and invasive exotics such as Brazilian pepper and Australian pine cover much of the refuge. Citrus trees for agricultural harvest cover other large areas. Commercial and residential development, feral animals and free roaming pets (including feral and domestic cats and dogs), commercial fishing and shell fishing, recreational boating and marinas, as well as elevated nutrient loading and pollution on the waterways are increasing.

Continual disturbance of fish spawning areas, nesting birds, and manatees and the reduction of water quality from pollutants and watercraft are continual management problems. With a limited number of full-time staff (i.e., staff increased from one to four in 2001), a continual challenge is the ability to coordinate conservation management with the more than 100 agencies and organizations who share responsibility of managing the Indian River Lagoon watershed. Management overlap of refuge lands and waters is shared by many agencies. The refuge was set aside for conservation, yet without adequate levels of staff to enforce regulations.

Today, the lagoonal portion of the refuge is being utilized primarily for recreation. Lagoonal islands in and around the refuge are overrun with exotic plants, trash, and debris, but thanks to the efforts of several private groups and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, some of the islands of the Indian River Lagoon are being restored and protected.

The lack of Service ownership of most of the refuge presents a difficult management challenge (i.e., the Service owns ±363 acres and leases the bulk of the over 5,400 acres from the State of Florida). Current long-term lease and management agreements between landowners with properties within the approved refuge acquisition boundary tend to favor stipulations and mission requirements of the owner, making it difficult for the Service to fulfill its mission, the refuge’s purposes, and trust responsibilities. For instance, the management agreement between the State of Florida and the Service stipulates that many activities, including boating, sun bathing, commercial and sport fishing, and shell fishing would continue to be allowed within most of the refuge boundary. These traditional activities continue to contribute to a diverse economy and provide recreational opportunities to its residents, but at a cost to fish and wildlife resources. To manage in support of fish and wildlife conservation (e.g., to regulate activities to protect colonial nesting birds, juvenile fish, and threatened and endangered populations), refuge managers need additional authority to protect fish and wildlife resources to meet agency mission and legal requirements.

Refuge Environment

Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is located along the southeast coast of Florida in the most productive estuary in the country--the Indian River Lagoon. The Lagoon has more species of plants and animals than any other estuary in North America, including over 2,200 animal species and over 2,100 plant species. Since it is located where the temperate and tropical zones overlap and located within the Indian River Lagoon at the confluence of freshwater and saltwater sources, the refuge is uniquely situated to support a wide variety of resident and migratory species.

Although Pelican Island Refuge was established in 1903, land purchases did not begin until 87 years later in 1990. While the island eroded by more than half from 5.5 acres in 1943 to 2.2 acres in 1996, the refuge has grown to encompass ±5,445 acres (as of September 30, 2002). Within the ±6,184-acre acquisition boundary, the Fish and Wildlife Service owns ±363 acres and leases or otherwise manages the bulk of the refuge (i.e., ±5,062 acres), while remaining inholdings total ±409 acres.

Management efforts from 1903 until 2002 focused on coordinating with partners controlling exotic and invasive species; securing staff to operate the refuge; managing volunteers; and initiating conservation programs that benefit migratory birds and federally endangered and threatened species. During this planning process, in 2001, the refuge expanded its staff from one to four. Two more positions were also added during this planning process in 2002. The now six-person staff addresses a variety of refuge projects, including recent conservation management projects such as:

• recruiting and training staff and volunteers;
• developing visitor facilities;
• coordinating shoreline stabilization and restoration of Pelican Island proper;
• coordinating habitat restoration and facility improvements on the barrier island to showcase Refuge System Centennial events (in March 2003) and to provide opportunities for on-site wildlife viewing, environmental education, and cultural history interpretation;
• removing exotic, invasive, and nuisance species; and
• contributing to the recovery of federally threatened and endangered species (e.g., by posting refuge boundary signs and conducting patrols).

Fish, Wildlife, and Plant Populations

Pelican Island Refuge serves as a critical repository of gene pools, species, and communities that is very important to the overall contribution and health of the Indian River Lagoon and the South Florida Ecosystem. Named after the original pelican rookery that currently occupies a 2.8-acre lagoonal island and that serves as the focal point of the refuge, Pelican Island Refuge provides an important ecological niche for fish, wildlife, and plant species. The Service manages refuge resources and coordinates with neighboring land managers and agencies to conserve biological diversity in the Indian River Lagoon region.

The refuge serves as an important site for the recovery of federal and state listed threatened and endangered species. The refuge’s location and habitat features are important for the future of 14 federally listed threatened and endangered species, as well as for the future of 45 species listed by the State of Florida (see Appendix IV). Restoration efforts on the refuge, coupled with a combination of protected and managed public and private lands, could provide the necessary conditions for endangered species to live with minimal disturbance, despite the high level of human development and use in and around the refuge. Beyond the 14 federally listed species and despite limited data, the refuge is known to support hundreds of species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and plants, with many more species suspected to occur on the refuge.

Avian species are highly important wildlife resources identified on the refuge with more than 140 species of birds using the refuge as a nesting, roosting, feeding, or loafing area. At least 16 different species of birds nest on Pelican Island proper. And at least 39 bird species using the refuge are listed by federal or state governments, Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, or Audubon WatchList. (Refer to Appendix IV for a listing of these birds.) The federally endangered wood stork is of special interest to Service managers. Wood stork populations have declined sharply in Florida, from 60,000 in the 1930s to 5,000 pairs today. Wood storks have been nesting on Pelican Island proper since 1950. The Pelican Island colony has been one of the most consistently active rookeries in the State of Florida. Currently, between 90 and 150 pairs of wood storks nest on Pelican Island proper each year.

At least 18 mammals are known to occur on the refuge: short-tailed shrew, least shrew, nine-banded armadillo, opossum, bobcat, river otter, eastern wood rat, cotton mouse, southeastern beach mouse, raccoon, black rat, gray squirrel, hispid cotton rat, spotted skunk, marsh rabbit, eastern cottontail, West Indian manatee, and Atlantic bottlenose dolphin. The Lagoon is used extensively by Atlantic bottlenose dolphins and West Indian manatees and both are commonly seen on the refuge.

And 27 reptiles and amphibians are known to occur on the refuge: eight snakes, eight frogs and toads, five sea turtles, and three lizards, as well as the gopher tortoise, diamondback terrapin, and American alligator. As a juvenile sea turtle nursery, the lagoonal waters of the refuge serve critical needs for threatened and endangered sea turtles.

A variety of fish species also utilize the refuge. One hundred and six different fish species were identified in 1897 during the first fisheries survey ever conducted in the Lagoon. Surveys conducted in 1994 (Gilmore 1995) listed 782 fish species for east central Florida, with at least half of this amount occurring at some point of their life history in the Indian River Lagoon. Over 200 fish species are known to occur on the refuge. One federally endangered fish species occurs on the refuge: smalltooth sawfish. In addition, the refuge supports 10 fish species listed by the State of Florida, Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals, or Florida Natural Areas Inventory, including sturgeon, pipefish, goby, rivulus, and snook. Other fish using the refuge include tarpon, spotted seatrout, flounder, black mullet, redfish, black drum, ladyfish, mackerel, and bluefish. The American eel also occurs on the refuge and is currently under consideration as a candidate for listing under the Endangered Species Act. And, although not federal or state listed, fat snook and tarpon snook are included in Florida’s Wildlife Legacy Initiative as part of Florida’s species of greatest conservation needs. Fish species within the refuge are important not only to commercial and recreational interests, but also to the ecology of the area. Important fish habitat, such as fish spawning and fish larvae settlement sites in the refuge, must be protected to ensure healthy, sustainable fish populations.

A wide variety of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial invertebrates are found within the refuge’s boundary. For example, the mangrove crab is found on the refuge and is listed by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals. Some of the more common invertebrates include conchs, snails, oysters, land crabs, dragonflies, butterflies, and cicadas.

Beyond wildlife species, the refuge supports an estimated 300 plant species, including 18 species listed by the federal government, State of Florida, Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals, and/or Florida Natural Areas Inventory: giant leather fern, Curtiss’ milkweed, hand fern, Christmas berry, butterfly orchid, beach creeper, Johnson’s seagrass, crested coralroot, pineland lantana, Simpson stopper, shell mound prickly pear cactus, cinnamon fern, pepper, inkberry, inflated wild pine, giant wild pine, coastal vervain, and Tampa vervain.

Habitats

The primary habitats of the refuge fall into three categories: aquatic communities, transitional communities, and upland communities. Lagoonal waters, including estuarine waters, seagrasses, drift algae, and exposed bottoms, cover over 75 percent of the refuge (see Lucode = 5400 in Table 3). The remaining habitats of the refuge include agriculture (i.e., citrus groves), hardwood forest, Australian pine, lakes, mangrove swamps, forested wetlands, scrub-shrub wetlands, non-vegetated wetlands, rural land in transition (e.g., former citrus groves that are currently in early successional stages), spoil areas, and roadways. Existing land uses within the refuge’s acquisition boundary, but not currently part of the refuge, include residential, commercial, and agricultural uses, as well as roadways. See Table 3 and Figure 8 for a breakdown of the land use/land cover types within the refuge’s acquisition boundary. (The land use/land cover types were obtained from the St. Johns River Water Management District and represent 1995 conditions. Habitat surveys on the refuge may yield slightly different results.) See Table 4 for the characteristics of the main habitat types of the refuge.

Aquatic communities of the refuge are in a mix of habitats, including lagoonal waters (e.g., exposed bottoms, drift algae, seagrasses, and open estuarine waters) and the open water portion of the impoundments. Exposed bottoms and oyster bars provide cover for invertebrates and small fish, providing a forage base for a variety of wildlife along the food chain (this habitat supports key species such as segmented worms, brittle stars, clams, oysters, stingrays, and flounders). Drift algae is free drifting algae that collects in response to wind, water currents, and bottom topography and which contributes to the primary productivity, and overall complexity of the Lagoon ecosystem (this habitat supports key species such as juvenile green sea turtles). With seven species found in this area, seagrasses are a key habitat of the Lagoon system, playing a prominent role as a nursery (key species supported in this habitat include manatees, red drum, spotted sea trout, sea horses, blue crabs, clams, shrimp, sea urchins, and wading and diving birds). In seagrass meadows, 214 fish species have been identified, with 87 percent of the species in a juvenile stage. Providing a transition from fresh water to salt water, the open estuarine water of the Lagoon provides the basis for the diversity of wildlife found on the refuge (this habitat supports key species such as manatees, bald eagles, sea turtles, ospreys, dolphins, pelicans, cormorants, waterfowl, black skimmers, terns, and a variety of fish).

Aquatic communities adjoin a variety of transitional communities on the refuge, including high salt marsh, mangrove swamp, mud flat, perennial and ephemeral freshwater wetlands, and impounded wetlands. Salt marshes are areas of salt tolerant wetland vegetation, often containing ponds, natural depressions, and creeks that are utilized by fish, crabs, and shrimp. Other key species in salt marshes include diamondback terrapins, fiddler crabs, marsh rabbits, Atlantic salt marsh snakes, clapper rails, and wood storks.

In mangrove swamps and fringes, mangroves trap and collect sediment to help stabilize shorelines and reduce flood damage. Over 100 fish species and shellfish are dependent on mangroves. Key animal species found in this habitat include mangrove water snakes, river otters, raccoons, mangrove crabs, snook, pelicans, wood storks, herons, egrets, shorebirds, periwinkle snails, and juvenile and predatory fish. Freshwater wetlands created with water control structures that ultimately connect to the Lagoon could allow for anadromous fish migration, benefiting pipefish, snook, and gobies. This could result in the recruitment of 10 fish species unique to this area. Seasonally fluctuating ponds would benefit frogs, salamanders, crayfish, land crabs, rivulus, red-bellied sliders, mud turtles and snapping turtles. The created freshwater wetlands would provide foraging grounds for nesting and wintering birds. Restoration is planned on the barrier island near Jungle Trail to mimic the natural conditions once found in this area. Beyond these natural and restored aquatic habitats, the refuge also manages impounded wetlands. Under a management agreement, Bird’s and Pete’s impoundments are actively managed for mosquito control by the Indian River Mosquito Control District. In addition, the refuge currently coordinates with the Indian River Mosquito Control District to regulate the water levels in Pete’s and Bird’s impoundments on an alternative rotation schedule for wading bird feeding. The North and South Deerfield impoundments are breached and therefore function according to the natural rhythms of the Indian River Lagoon. Key species supported by these impoundments include herons, egrets, shorebirds, waterfowl, reptiles, river otters, wood storks, ibises, peregrine falcons, and bald eagles.

Finally, transitional communities give way to upland communities on the refuge, including lagoonal islands, spoil islands, coastal hammock, citrus groves, refugia habitat, and developed and interpretative lands.

The refuge manages three spoil islands and 23 natural islands and islets. While both the natural and spoil islands have natural and exotic vegetation, the spoil islands tend to be dominated by exotic plants. Many of the spoil islands off the refuge are used for recreational activities such as day use and overnight camping and these uses tend to spill over onto the spoil islands managed by the refuge, which are managed under the lease agreement with the State of Florida and which are open to the traditional public uses specified in the lease agreement. The most well known natural island of the refuge is Pelican Island proper. From 1943 to 1996, Pelican Island proper eroded to less than half its original size (i.e., from 5.5 acres to about 2.2 acres) (see Figure 5). However, recent shoreline stabilization efforts have restored the Island to 2.8 acres in 2004. The total number of nesting pairs of birds on this historic rookery has declined nearly 94 percent since 1910 (Figure 7). In an effort to combat these losses, shoreline stabilization efforts began as a multi-partner effort in 2000 to protect Pelican Island proper from eroding and losing its functionality as a rookery. Depending on the success of the shoreline stabilization efforts, additional actions to limit erosion may or may not be necessary to protect this historic rookery. These efforts are expected to reduce the loss of lands from erosion, aid in the accretion of sediment, and help in the revegetation of the original 5.5 acres. This loss of land and habitat has led to decreased populations of nesting birds on the Island, including brown pelicans, wood storks, herons, and egrets. The mangroves which provide prime nesting substrate are also declining.

To provide a buffer to the historic rookery, the refuge is acquiring lands within the acquisition boundary on the barrier island, including citrus groves. Dependent upon available Service, partner, and grant funds, the refuge plans to restore existing and acquired citrus groves to mimic natural conditions and hydrology. Coastal hammocks represent much of the native habitats that previously existed on the barrier island. Coastal hammocks are dominated by live oaks and cabbage palms, and include an understory with a diverse assemblage of tropical and temperate plants. Key wildlife species in coastal hammocks of the refuge are neotropical migratory birds, woodrats, eastern indigo snakes, land crabs, and bobcats. In general, and especially within the Indian River Lagoon, tropical hardwood hammocks have been greatly reduced by conversion to other land uses (from historically agricultural uses to predominantly urban and suburban uses), fragmentation, and increased distance between forest patches, resulting in the decline of breeding birds. Tropical hardwood hammocks are severely threatened by invasions of non-indigenous animal species (Snyder, Herndon, and Robertson 1990). Established non-indigenous animal species in tropical hardwood hammocks include 7 mammals, 30 birds, 4 amphibians, and 25 reptiles (Snyder, Herndon, and Robertson 1990). As a remnant of former agricultural operations, an old field habitat exists on the refuge. Although not a native habitat, this old field habitat is managed and maintained by the refuge as refugia habitat for the federally listed southeastern beach mouse. This old field habitat occupies small parts of upland areas and is also valuable for grassland guild migrants such as bobolinks and loggerhead shrikes. By increasing management, this old field habitat will better support southeastern beach mice, ground doves, gopher tortoises, and migrants such as bobolinks and loggerhead shrikes. The refuge contributes to recovery efforts for the southeastern beach mouse by protecting this old field habitat and coordinating with researchers to conduct baseline surveys on the refuge.

Also, non-native habitats, developed, and interpretative lands do occur on the refuge. The refuge is currently involved in habitat restoration and facility development in the Jungle Trail area. Refuge facilities in this area include dike trails, a boardwalk, and observation tower, serviced by county-built and maintained parking areas, a restroom facility, and the Jungle Trail roadway. Proposed, but unfunded facilities include a wildlife drive, additional boardwalks and trails, informational kiosks, a hummingbird/butterfly garden, and other interpretative lands, as well as a visitor center.

Land Protection and Conservation

The Service is involved in a variety of land protection and conservation activities at Pelican Island Refuge, including a lease agreement with the State of Florida, management agreements, conservation easements, partnership land acquisition efforts, and Service land acquisition efforts.

The refuge leases the majority of the lands and waters of the refuge from the State of Florida. So it is important that the refuge and the State of Florida coordinate management to minimize injury, mortality, and disturbance of the West Indian manatee and trust species, as well as native wildlife and habitat in general. Under the current lease agreement, public uses including traditional navigation, boating, bathing, shell fishing, and commercial and sport fishing are not restricted with the exception of a 410-foot buffer zone surrounding Pelican Island proper. (This buffer zone is measured from the mean high water line.) The current lease agreement does not specify control of using personal watercraft and camping on spoil islands, which are currently uncontrolled on the refuge. Beyond this lease agreement, the Service has other agreements addressing refuge management, including agreements with Indian River Mosquito Control District for the impoundments and with Indian River County for 122.5 acres. And a conservation easement with Orchid Island Properties allows the refuge to manage an additional 127 acres.

Beyond existing agreements, the Service is pursuing new agreements and acquisitions, especially for the buffer properties located on the barrier island. Given the ongoing and growing development pressures experienced in this area, acquisition of the buffer for the Pelican Island rookery is already a priority. Without acquisition of these barrier island properties by the refuge and/or its partners and given the growth pressures of the area and current development activities, it is likely that these properties will be developed privately in the near future.

To the west, on the mainland, the Service is working with Indian River County and other partners to pursue acquisition and management of the Kroegel Homestead, since it is an integral piece of the history of the National Wildlife Refuge System and the local community.

Education and Visitor Services

Consistent with the provisions outlined in the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act, the Service can provide high quality compatible wildlife-dependent recreation programs. At Pelican Island Refuge these include fishing, observing and photographing wildlife, and participating in environmental education and interpretation (see Figure 9). These priority public uses provide the public with an opportunity to learn about, enjoy, and appreciate natural resources, but not at the expense of the natural environment. Any allowed use of the refuge, including these priority public uses, must be determined to be compatible with the refuge’s purposes and with the mission of the National Wildlife Refuge System (see Appendix V for the compatibility determinations).

Fundamental and supreme to the provision of these uses is the provision of viable and diverse fish and wildlife populations and the habitats upon which they depend. Those uses that do not support the purposes of the refuge, that threaten or disturb fish and wildlife populations, or that are not compatible public uses will be phased out on the refuge.

Priority public use activities currently occurring on the refuge include fishing and observing and photographing wildlife (see Figure 9 for current facilities and facilities under construction). Fishing is permitted in the open water areas of the Indian River Lagoon under the lease agreement with the State of Florida and opportunities exist for catching a variety of sport fish, including redfish, snook, seatrout, mangrove snapper, and Jack Crevalle. Fishing on the refuge includes fishing from a boat, as well as bank and wade fishing in the Indian River Lagoon. State fishing regulations apply. Bank fishing currently occurs in the Indian River Lagoon. However, the locations of these activities are not managed by the Service because of the lack of staff and the conditions of the lease agreement, resulting in wildlife loss and disturbance (e.g., bank fishing can flush nesting birds, leaving the nest and any eggs or young subject to predation and direct sunlight for prolonged periods). Wildlife observation and photography are highly popular activities, with visitors attracted to the area on a year-round basis. Facility development and improvements are underway, including a boardwalk and observation tower off Jungle Trail. Environmental education programs are not offered on the refuge, however, the staff does conduct occasional on-site interpretive programs and off-site outreach activities. The refuge also offers a web site and several brochures describing refuge program activities.

Under the existing lease agreement with the State of Florida, fishing and boating are not restricted by the refuge, except for a narrow buffer area around the 2.2-acre Pelican Island. Current uses include those which are negatively impacting wildlife and habitats (e.g., using personal watercraft and camping on the spoil islands). Also, current boating, personal watercraft use, and camping activities are negatively impacting key bird nesting sites (e.g., these activities flush birds from nests, resulting in nest abandonment and nest predation).

Refuge Administration

Historically, the refuge was managed by one staff member, a single boat, and a shotgun, or less. For nearly 100 years, the refuge was sustained by the partners, including state and local government agencies and conservation organizations such as the Audubon of Florida, Indian River Area Preservation League, Pelican Island Audubon Society, and the Indian River County Historical Society. Most recently, the refuge has been aided by the efforts of the Pelican Island Preservation Society. The Pelican Island Preservation Society has been instrumental in providing volunteers to increase public awareness and to increase support from local, state, and federal agencies regarding pressing issues. Preservation Society volunteers also provide support for other refuge management activities (e.g., exotic plant control activities). Supplementing the efforts of the volunteers and the partners, refuge staff has grown to six full-time employees.

Numerous research activities by a variety of entities currently occur on the refuge. However, due to the lack of staff, the refuge has historically not managed nor has the refuge been aware of all the research conducted within its boundary, the data collected, or the wildlife and habitat impacts from conducting this research. As a result of this planning process, the refuge began issuing special use permits for research activities in May 2002; however, research activities continue to occur without refuge permits.

Adopted in 1986, the Wilderness Management Plan outlines existing objectives and management actions for the Wilderness Area located on Pelican Island proper. Predominantly utilized by colonial nesting birds, the 2.2-acre Pelican Island Wilderness Area includes an estimated cover of 50 percent red and black mangroves interspersed with smooth cord grass, salt grass, sea oxeye daisy, prickly pear cactus, and Christmas berry. The shallow waters surrounding the Wilderness Area contain beds of widgeon and shoal grasses. The Wilderness Area is closed year-round to the public to protect the variety of colonial nesting birds. Although public use is prohibited within this small wilderness area, wildlife viewing just outside the wilderness boundary is popular.

A survey for soil contaminants was conducted June 15-17, 1999, near the vicinity of the Jungle Trail (on the Kennedy, Surman, and Pryor tracts). Materials such as fertilizers and low levels of copper in localized areas were removed from the soil. The refuge also removed debris and paint cans. As new citrus groves are acquired, the Service will conduct additional contaminant surveys.

Cultural Resources

Although the refuge is 100 years old, its history is a bit older. Florida’s terrestrial vertebrate life dates back 25 million years (Myers and Ewel 1990); human inhabitation of the Indian River Lagoon region extends back at least 12,000 years; and Indian shell middens throughout the area date from 1,000 BC to 1,000 AD. Since the refuge includes several archaeological sites and since these sites are fairly accessible to disruption, vandalism, and theft, several archaeological surveys have been conducted on the refuge since 1981. The refuge and Indian River County are currently working together to list midden sites in the Florida Master Site File. Some of these sites are eligible for listing in the National Register. In the event that a previously undetected archaeological site is uncovered, activity must stop and the refuge must coordinate with the Service’s Regional Archaeologist and Florida’s State Historic Preservation Office.

Recognized for its historic significance as the first refuge and the birthplace of the National Wildlife Refuge System, Pelican Island Refuge was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1963. The Kroegel Homestead is locally and nationally historically significant as the home of the first Refuge Manager. Yet, the historic Kroegel Homestead is facing mounting development pressures. The Kroegel Homestead was settled in 1881 and is located directly across the Indian River Lagoon from Pelican Island proper and the rest of the refuge. The refuge and the Kroegel Homestead are integral elements of the local community. Descendants of the Kroegel family are still active in the local community and continue to live on what remains of the original Homestead.

Social and Economic Environment

The refuge is located along the Indian River Lagoon region, which was generally unaffected by human activities until the early 1800s. Early activities included growing citrus, harvesting palmetto berries, and growing pineapple. By the late 1800s, commercial fisheries opened up the Lagoon’s resources. With repeated freezes devastating agricultural crops, cattle grazing increased in the region. Various military facilities were developed in the region during World War II. By the 1960s, NASA’s space program instigated considerable growth in the area. The modern economy of the Indian River Lagoon is based on tourism and agriculture, as well as on fishing, manufacturing, real estate, services, and government. Today, citrus is a $2.1 billion industry in the Lagoon region.

The Indian River Lagoon is renowned for its recreational and ecotourism opportunities. The marsh beds act as nursery grounds that support an $800 million dollar industry to the local economy. Commercial and sport fishing, tourism, and real estate development are the mainstay in this area. In 1995, residents and tourists valued the Indian River Lagoon at more than $733 million, including spending on recreational activities (e.g., rental of fishing boats), commercial fish landings (e.g., seafood sales), and Lagoon-front property (e.g., home purchases). Of this $733 million, access to the resources, valued at $200 million, is not reflected in market transactions. An estimated $54 million was spent on recreational fishing in the Lagoon in 1990 with an anticipated escalation to $87 million by 2010 (Milon and Thunberg 1993). The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission estimates that non-consumptive bird use (e.g., observing, photographing, drawing, and painting) annually generates $477 million in retail sales in Florida. The Indian River Lagoon region figures prominently in the Great Florida Birding Trail with over 40 sites throughout the Lagoon region and a main gateway at Merritt Island National Wildlife Refuge. Over 15 percent of Florida’s restaurants and hotels are located within the Indian River Lagoon region.

In 1990, the Indian River Lagoon region supported a population of about 750,000. By 2010, this population is anticipated to reach 1 million. Although a smaller county in the region, Indian River County’s population increased by over 25 percent over the last 10 years from 90,208 in 1990 to 112,947 in 2000. During this same time period, the city of Sebastian grew at a rate of 58.6 percent. Median household income for Indian River County in 1997 was approximately $35,895. While this value is above the national average, it is estimated that approximately 11.2 percent of the population of Indian River County live at or below the poverty level. Further, in October 2000, the unemployment rate for Indian River County was more than double (i.e., 7.5 percent) either the Florida or the U.S. unemployment rate (i.e., 3.7 percent for Florida and 3.6 percent for the U.S.). The county’s population continues to be predominantly white and older, with considerable increases in the Hispanic and Asian race categories. The county’s median age rose in the 1990s to 47 years of age. The adjacent counties are generally larger than Indian River County: to the north, Brevard County’s 2000 population was 476,230; to the south, St. Lucie County’s 2000 population was 192,695; and to the west, Osceola County’s 2000 population was 172,493. By 2015, Indian River County’s population is forecasted to reach 144,000.

Natural and agricultural lands of the area are increasingly being converted to urban and suburban uses. This rapid growth and its associated impacts dramatically affect the refuge and its resources. This growth even extends to the borders of the refuge. See Figure 10 to view the land use/land cover classifications in and around the refuge (St. Johns River Water Management District 1995). See Figure 11 for an aerial view showing the development surrounding the refuge–image taken in 1999 with 1 meter resolution (Florida Department of Environmental Protection 1999c). To the west of the refuge, across the Indian River Lagoon and the highly utilized Intracoastal Waterway is the City of Sebastian. Development west of the refuge includes residential uses (e.g., single-family homes, condos, and mobile home parks), the City of Sebastian’s Riverview Park, commercial uses (e.g., gas stations, restaurants, automobile and boat dealers, and small businesses), minor undeveloped lands (e.g., Duck Point), citrus groves, plant nurseries, and sand mining operations. To the north of the refuge are residential uses, Sebastian Inlet, and the highly utilized Sebastian Inlet State Recreation Area (the annual visitation to the Recreation Area is approximately 750,000). The County Road 510 Bridge (i.e., Wabasso Causeway), the Environmental Learning Center, Disney’s Vero Beach Resort, and commercial uses are to the south of the refuge. Residential developments (e.g., towns of Orchid and Windsor), residential lots (up to 3 units per acre), active agricultural operations (i.e., citrus groves), Indian River County beach front parks (e.g., Treasure Shores), and Archie Carr Refuge line the eastern border of the refuge.

Physical Environment

The climate, topography, geology, air quality, soils, and waterways form the foundation of the physical environment of the refuge.

Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge’s climate is subtropical and temperate. The average temperature is 67 degrees Fahrenheit with long, warm, humid summers and mild winters. Tropical storms impact the area, especially from May through mid-November. Generally, the area averages between 55 to 60 inches of rain annually, mostly in the summer and early fall.

On the refuge, elevation rises east to west sharply from sea level to 15 feet, and then drops more gradually back to below sea level in the Indian River Lagoon. Generally, the elevation of the area between the Lagoon and St. Sebastian River is 20 feet. West of that, the ancient dune elevation rises from 20 to 30 feet.

The surface formations of the Pelican Island Refuge area are of Pleistocene (Glacial) and Holocene (Recent) origin. Previously submerged lands were exposed during the late Pleistocene period, providing for the spread of flora and fauna from the peninsula. Wetlands, salt marshes, mangroves, and other swampy formations lined the margins between uplands and submerged lands. The tropical hammocks and coastal shrubs of the area were most likely nourished by the prevailing West Indies with substantial influences on the flora, birds, and insects from Cuba and the Bahamas.

The air pollutants of major concern in Florida are carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, particulate matter and sulfur dioxide. The primary sources of these pollutants are vehicle emissions, power plants, and industrial activities. In 1999, all areas of Florida were air quality attainment areas. The Indian River Lagoon area is considered to have good air quality. However, occasional temperature inversions, lasting up to 48 hours, can temporarily degrade local air quality below acceptable levels.

The general soils of the refuge include Canaveral-Captiva-Palm Beach, which is characterized by gently sloping, somewhat poorly drained to moderately well drained sandy soils with shell fragments, and McKee-Quartzipsamments-St. Augustine, which is characterized by level, somewhat poorly drained soils mixed with sand and shell fragments (Wettstein, Nobel, and Slabaugh 1987). Specific soils found on the refuge include: Canaveral Fine Sand, 0-5 percent Slopes; Quartzipsamments, 0-5 percent Slopes; Captiva Fine Sand; McKee Mucky Clay Loam; and Kesson Muck (Wettstein, Noble, and Slabaugh 1987).

With numerous small rivers, creeks, and canals flowing into it, the narrow estuarine Indian River Lagoon stretches from Ponce de Leon Inlet south of Daytona Beach to Jupiter Inlet near West Palm Beach–about 155 miles. The Intracoastal Waterway is the deepest part of the Lagoon. Near the refuge the St. Sebastian River and Turkey Creek contribute fresh water to the brackish Lagoon. The Fellsmere Farms and Sebastian River water control districts feed water through the St. Sebastian River to the Lagoon. The St. Sebastian River flows into the Lagoon nearly opposite of Sebastian Inlet along the northern edge of the refuge. The Lagoon has several identified water quality parameters of concern: cadmium, lead, mercury, nutrients, selenium, thallium, and dissolve oxygen (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2000b). Water circulation within the Lagoon is affected by the Intracoastal Waterway (e.g., navigation channel maintenance and boat usage), winds, inlets, and causeways. The water quality within the refuge boundary is generally better quality (with Class II water) than nearby portions of the Lagoon.

See Also

• Pelican Island Prologue
• Paul Kroegel
• National Wildlife Refuge System

Web Links

• Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge - FWS
• Pelican Island Conservation Society
• Pelican Island NWR Live Web Cam

Documents

• Pelican Island Comprehensive Conservation Plan 2006 - FWS (PDF 158pp 9.93MB)
• Pelican Island Prologue - FWS (PDF 13pp 779KB)
• National Register of Historic Places Nomination Form 1984 (PDF 104pp 277KB)
• Designation of Wilderness Areas 1969 (PDF 559pp 32MB)
• Pelican Island Story - FWS (PDF 1p 97KB)
• Pelican Island Brochure - FWS (PDF 2pp 2.74MB)

References

Source: Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge Comprehensive Conservation Plan 2006 (PDF 158pp 9.99MB)