Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge
Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge in Sebastian, Florida, is the birthplace of the National Wildlife Refuge System (Figure 1). What happened on this tiny island that made it so important, that it became a catalyst for what is now the world’s largest network of lands and waters managed for fish and wildlife–the National Wildlife Refuge System? By the end of the 1800s, plume hunters, egg collectors, and vandals had nearly exterminated all the egrets, herons, and spoonbills from Pelican Island proper (i.e., the original 5.5-acre rookery island). Paul Kroegel (who was to later become the first Refuge Manager) protected the last nesting brown pelicans on the east coast of Florida and petitioned ornithologists and naturalists to help him. At the urging of researchers, concerned citizens, the Audubon Society, and the American Ornithologists’ Union, President Theodore Roosevelt signed an Executive Order that set aside Pelican Island as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds on March 14, 1903, thus establishing the first national wildlife refuge (originally 5.5 acres) and the National Wildlife Refuge System.
Pelican Island is both the name of the refuge and the name of the original 5.5-acre rookery island. While Pelican Island proper (i.e., the original rookery island) eroded by more than half from 5.5 acres in 1943 to 2.2 acres in 1996, the refuge has grown to encompass ±5,445 acres (as of September 30, 2002). Within the ±6,184-acre acquisition boundary (Figure 2), the Fish and Wildlife Service owns ±363 acres and leases or otherwise manages the bulk of the refuge (i.e., ±5,062 acres), while remaining inholdings total ±409 acres. (This leaves ±330 acres unaccounted. These acres are most likely part of the lease with the State of Florida.)
Located in the Indian River Lagoon on the east coast of Florida, Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge now supports important bird rookeries, key fish spawning sites, and a globally important juvenile sea turtle nursery. Primarily comprised of lagoonal waters, the refuge includes aquatic, transitional, and upland habitats supporting a diversity of species, including 14 federally listed threatened and endangered species. This complex ecological system also supports hundreds of species of birds, fish, plants, and mammals. When the refuge was established at the beginning of the 20th century, as many as 10,000 brown pelicans occupied the tiny 5.5-acre Pelican Island as a last stronghold for this species along the east coast of Florida. Today, the number of brown pelicans using the Island has dwindled in magnitude to less than 100 nesting pairs. And today at least 16 different bird species nest on Pelican Island proper, including brown pelicans, wood storks, egrets, herons, ibises, anhingas, oystercatchers, and cormorants. Beyond the tiny rookery of Pelican Island proper, over 130 species of birds use the refuge as a rookery, roost, feeding ground, and/or loafing area. Further, federally protected West Indian manatees and sea turtles inhabit the lagoonal waters of the refuge, alongside some 30,000 annual boaters. A growing human population, along with ongoing development and other human activities, currently threaten the fragile, but highly productive waters of the Indian River Lagoon and the refuge.
Beyond being the birthplace of the National Wildlife Refuge System, the refuge is also designated as a National Historic Landmark (1963), one of the smallest units of the National Wilderness Preservation System (with a 5.5-acre Wilderness Area encompassing Pelican Island proper) (1970), and a Wetland of International Importance (1993). The refuge is also listed as a candidate Marine Protected Area (2000). Beginning in 2001, facilities have been and are being constructed on the eastern side of the refuge on the barrier island through partnerships (e.g., with Indian River County) to view the historic Pelican Island rookery and interpret the natural and cultural history of the refuge, the area, and the Refuge System. Another currently active partnership activity is focused on refuge habitat restoration efforts with the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and Indian River County.
Ecosystem
Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is part of the South Florida Ecosystem (Figure 3). Comprising one of the 52 ecosystems around the country, the Fish and Wildlife Service’s South Florida Ecosystem encompasses more than 26,000 square miles, 19 southern Florida counties, and over 7 million people. The South Florida Ecosystem has undergone numerous human disturbances, including alteration of hydroperiod, fire history, and drainage patterns. Developing and dredging the canal system and expanding agricultural operations have eliminated and diminished natural systems. Exotic species such as Old World climbing fern, melaleuca, Australian pine, and Brazilian pepper are further contributing to wildlife population and habitat declines. Over the last 50 years, the South Florida Ecosystem has undergone dramatic changes, which are largely attributed to various human activities and growth.
Despite the ongoing landscape alteration and rapidly expanding population, the scrub, hardwood hammocks, cypress swamps, salt marshes, mangrove islands, coral reefs, and seagrass beds of south Florida support one of the most ecologically diverse systems on the planet. The majority of the remaining wildlife and habitats of the South Florida Ecosystem are found on national interest lands, including sixteen national wildlife refuges, three national parks, one national preserve, and one national marine sanctuary. Despite tremendous human development, the South Florida Ecosystem supports more than 600 rare or imperiled species, where 68 are federally listed as threatened or endangered, including 8 mammals, 13 birds, 10 reptiles, 2 invertebrates, and 35 plants.
Partners
A provision of the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997 and subsequent agency policy provide that the Service shall ensure timely and effective cooperation and collaboration with other federal agencies and state fish and wildlife agencies during the course of acquiring and managing refuges. For Pelican Island Refuge, state fish and wildlife management is administered by the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission (http://www.floridaconservation.org/) and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection (http://www.dep.state.fl.us/). These state agencies are charged with enforcement responsibilities relating to migratory birds, trust species, and fisheries, as well as with management of natural resources of the state.
Since the 1960s, the State of Florida has been an important partner with the Service at Pelican Island Refuge (by leasing open waters and islands of the state to the Service, comprising the majority of property within the refuge). The State of Florida has helped champion the refuge through various efforts, including participation in the Pelican Island Working Group, an active working group comprised of a variety of public and private partners dedicated to improving the refuge and the resources it protects. For example, the Florida Department of Environmental Protection and Indian River County have been invaluable partners in securing and funding habitat restoration activities on the refuge. Various agencies within the state government have also participated in a mix of other refuge projects, including the planning process to develop a 15-year management plan for the refuge. The State of Florida’s participation and contribution throughout this comprehensive conservation planning process provide for ongoing opportunities and open dialogue to improve the ecological sustainment of fish and wildlife in Florida. An integral part of the comprehensive conservation planning process is integrating common mission objectives, where appropriate.
Introduction
Part of the South Florida Ecosystem, Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is located within the southern Indian River Lagoon (Figure 1). The Indian River Lagoon is located along a transition zone between the warm-temperate climate to the north and a more subtropical climate to the south. The area of the Lagoon surrounding the refuge is the focus of the planning study (Figure 1). The Lagoon’s location, combined with its large size and other physical characteristics, make it the most diverse estuary in North America.
Purposes and Designations
Currently over 5,400 acres, Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge was established in 1903 on 5.5 acres “as a preserve and breeding ground for native birds” through an unnumbered Executive Order and expanded in 1909 by Executive Order 1014. The Pelican Island Refuge “shall be administered by him (the Secretary of the Interior) directly or in accordance with cooperative agreements and in accordance with such rules and regulations for the conservation, maintenance, and management of wildlife, resources thereof, and its habitat thereon” [16 USC §664 (Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act)]. The refuge shall “conserve fish, wildlife, and plants, including those which are listed as endangered species or threatened species” [16 USC §1534 (Endangered Species Act)]. Further, the refuge serves “...the development, advancement, management, conservation, and protection of fish and wildlife resources... [16 USC §742(f)(a)(4) (Fish and Wildlife Act)] ...for the benefit of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, in performing its activities and services...” [16 USC §742(f)(b)(1) (Fish and Wildlife Act)].
Later, the Refuge Recreation Act was also applied to the refuge “...for (1) incidental fish and wildlifeoriented recreational development, (2) the protection of natural resources, (3) the conservation of endangered species or threatened species....” [16 USC §460k-1 (Refuge Recreation Act)]. The existence of the refuge serves the “...conservation, management, and restoration of the fish, wildlife, and plant resources and their habitats for the benefit of present and future generations of Americans....” [16 USC §668dd(a)(2) (National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act)]. Finally, the Pelican Island Wilderness Area “...shall be administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such manner as will leave them (wilderness areas) unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness, and so as to provide for the protection of these areas, the preservation of their wilderness character, and for the gathering and dissemination of information regarding their use and enjoyment as wilderness....” [16 USC 1 1 21 (note) (Wilderness Act)].
On October 23, 1970 under Public Law 91-504, the 5.5-acre Pelican Island became one of the smallest wilderness areas in the National Wilderness Preservation System. All management activities occurring within the original 5.5-acre wilderness boundary must meet the standards and criteria set forth in the Wilderness Act. Currently, about 3.3 acres of the wilderness area are submerged due to the erosion of Pelican Island proper.
The refuge is also designated as a National Historic Landmark, a Wetland of International Importance, and a candidate Marine Protected Area. Because of its status as the first federal area set aside specifically to protect wildlife, the refuge was designated a National Historic Landmark by the Secretary of the Interior in 1963. Thirty years later in 1993, Pelican Island Refuge was recognized by the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands as a Wetland of International Importance for its support of endangered species and large assemblages of migratory birds, as well as for its support of species at critical stages in their biological development. In 2000, the refuge was listed as a candidate Marine Protected Area for its protection of estuarine waters.
Ecological Threats and Problems
Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is in a critical location to serve and support biological diversity in the Indian River Lagoon and South Florida. Human impacts and underlying causes and threats to biological diversity include:
- the direct loss of habitat due to development and other human activities;
- the simplification and degradation of remaining habitats, including habitat alteration and fragmentation;
- the loss and decline of species and biological diversity;
- the effects of constructing navigation and water diversion facilities;
- the introduction and spread of exotic, nuisance, and invasive species;
- the lack of environmental regulation and enforcement; and
- the cumulative effects of land and water resource development projects.
As a result of these causes and threats, many species endemic to the southern Indian River Lagoon have become extinct, endangered, or threatened under the Endangered Species Act. The refuge supports at least 14 federally threatened or endangered species. Further, the refuge also supports 45 species listed by the State of Florida as either threatened, endangered, special concern, or commercially exploited; 54 species listed by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals; 54 species, 3 communities, and 2 sites listed by the Florida Natural Areas Inventory; and 11 species listed by the Audubon WatchList for Florida. (See Appendix IV for a complete listing of these species.) Nationally, 1,262 species are federally listed, with 986 listed as endangered (388 animals and 598 plants) and 276 listed as threatened (129 animals and 147 plants). Further, 257 species are listed as candidates for federal listing.
Habitats in and around the refuge serve a variety of species and are highly important in this developed landscape. A number of biodiversity hotspots are located in and around the refuge. These hotspots are areas with a high degree of overlap for 54 kinds of declining wildlife species with known occurrences of flora, fauna, and natural communities (Cox, Kautz, Maclaughlin, and Gilbert 1994). St. Sebastian River State Buffer Preserve (including impoundments and wetlands), seagrass beds in and around the refuge, and privately owned mangrove islands south of Wabasso bridge are hotspots identified as the most critical. Adjacent conservation lands are also critical to many species of wildlife that also use the refuge (Figure 4).
The high productivity and biological diversity of Pelican Island Refuge have been altered by people, which, in turn, have altered the way the Indian River Lagoon functions. The refuge faces ongoing threats from contaminated air, soil, and water; erosion and sedimentation; and cumulative habitat impacts from land and water resource development activities. Rapid population growth and development have resulted in long-term negative effects to the Pelican Island Refuge. By the year 2010, about one million people will reside in the Indian River Lagoon area. Terrestrial habitats that once dominated upland areas include hardwood hammocks, which are very important for mammals and migratory birds. Urbanization and agricultural operations (e.g., large citrus groves) now dominate land uses in upland areas. Stormwater inputs, saltwater exchange through fortified ocean inlets, pollution, habitat destruction, and continual land and water use practices are constant threats to fish and wildlife.
The reduction of ecological function and connection is a major problem in areas where the modification of inland waterways has caused major declines in fisheries and aquatic resource productivity. Beaches, seagrass beds, salt marshes, mangrove islands, and hammocks are subject to further loss or elimination. Causeways, the Intracoastal Waterway, beach and shoreline development, and fishing activities dominate aquatic uses in transitional and aquatic communities and habitats. Causeway construction, canal dredging, and commercial agricultural operations have contributed to the long-term loss and elimination of aquatic resources and habitats. Wetlands (former salt marshes and mangrove swamps) on the refuge were converted and managed to aid in mosquito control. Until recently, these impoundment areas were cut off from the rest of the Lagoon, isolating fish and other aquatic organisms from accessing this highly productive area. Reconnecting impoundments and restoring natural flow and biological interchange, while maintaining mosquito control and migratory bird habitat, are challenges to resource managers. As water quality declines in the Lagoon due to sediment and nutrient runoff, seagrasses decline, resulting in declines in fish and mollusk production.
Erosion of Pelican Island proper has increased management concerns of the Fish and Wildlife Service regarding the primary impacts from boat wakes and the potential for secondary impacts from dredging a deeper channel near the refuge. The rapid increase in coastal development is also of major concern. With the continual loss of Pelican Island proper, long-term impacts are experienced by many declining species. Predominantly due to the growth of the human population and the associated increases in public use activities and wildlife and habitat impacts and disturbance, the land base of Pelican Island proper (i.e., the original 5.5-acre rookery) decreased from 1943 to 1996 by more than 50 percent to 2.2 acres (Figure 5). Erosion predictions show grave consequences for this rookery island (Dunlevy 1996) (Figure 6). However, current shoreline stabilization efforts have increased the size of the Island to 2.8 acres (as of 2004).
Habitat conditions on Pelican Island have been changing over the last century. In 1903, when the refuge was established, the 5.5-acre Island functioned as a brown pelican rookery with some 10,000 pelicans counted during the peak nesting season. At that time, Paul Kroegel focused on keeping market hunters and egg collectors from decimating the population. One hundred years later, more than a dozen species nest on the Island with less than 100 nesting pairs of pelicans on the Island in the spring. Table 1 and Figure 7 clearly show a decline for the numbers and types of species nesting on Pelican Island proper. From 1910 to 1999, the total number of nesting pairs has decreased nearly 94 percent. Even from 1995 to 1999, the total number of nesting pairs has decreased by nearly 44 percent. This decline is related to the erosion of the rookery island and the general decline of wildlife species in the South Florida Ecosystem. Today, managers focus on limiting disturbance to the rookery and restoring and stabilizing the shoreline from further loss.
On many of the lagoonal islands and within other refuge habitats, exotic plants have displaced the majority of the native species. Problem and invasive exotics such as Brazilian pepper and Australian pine cover much of the refuge. Citrus trees for agricultural harvest cover other large areas. Commercial and residential development, feral animals and free roaming pets (including feral and domestic cats and dogs), commercial fishing and shell fishing, recreational boating and marinas, as well as elevated nutrient loading and pollution on the waterways are increasing.
Continual disturbance of fish spawning areas, nesting birds, and manatees and the reduction of water quality from pollutants and watercraft are continual management problems. With a limited number of full-time staff (i.e., staff increased from one to four in 2001), a continual challenge is the ability to coordinate conservation management with the more than 100 agencies and organizations who share responsibility of managing the Indian River Lagoon watershed (Indian River Lagoon National Estuary Program 1996). Management overlap of refuge lands and waters is shared by many agencies. The refuge was set aside for conservation, yet without adequate levels of staff to enforce regulations.
Today, the lagoonal portion of the refuge is being utilized primarily for recreation. Lagoonal islands in and around the refuge are overrun with exotic plants, trash, and debris, but thanks to the efforts of several private groups and the Florida Department of Environmental Protection, some of the islands of the Indian River Lagoon are being restored and protected.
The lack of Service ownership of most of the refuge presents a difficult management challenge (i.e., the Service owns ±363 acres and leases the bulk of the over 5,400 acres from the State of Florida). Current long-term lease and management agreements between landowners with properties within the approved refuge acquisition boundary tend to favor stipulations and mission requirements of the owner, making it difficult for the Service to fulfill its mission, the refuge’s purposes, and trust responsibilities. For instance, the management agreement between the State of Florida and the Service stipulates that many activities, including boating, sun bathing, commercial and sport fishing, and shell fishing would continue to be allowed within most of the refuge boundary. These traditional activities continue to contribute to a diverse economy and provide recreational opportunities to its residents, but at a cost to fish and wildlife resources. To manage in support of fish and wildlife conservation (e.g., to regulate activities to protect colonial nesting birds, juvenile fish, and threatened and endangered populations), refuge managers need additional authority to protect fish and wildlife resources to meet agency mission and legal requirements.
Refuge Environment
Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge is located along the southeast coast of Florida in the most productive estuary in the country--the Indian River Lagoon. The Lagoon has more species of plants and animals than any other estuary in North America, including over 2,200 animal species and over 2,100 plant species. Since it is located where the temperate and tropical zones overlap and located within the Indian River Lagoon at the confluence of freshwater and saltwater sources, the refuge is uniquely situated to support a wide variety of resident and migratory species.
Although Pelican Island Refuge was established in 1903, land purchases did not begin until 87 years later in 1990. To date, only ±351 acres have been acquired. As of September 30, 2002, the refuge manages over 5,400 acres of the ±6,184-acre acquisition boundary. Table 2 summarizes the Serviceowned and managed lands and waters within the refuge, while Figure 2 delineates these areas.
Management efforts from 1903 until 2002 focused on coordinating with partners controlling exotic and invasive species; securing staff to operate the refuge; managing volunteers; and initiating conservation programs that benefit migratory birds and federally endangered and threatened species. During this planning process, in 2001, the refuge expanded its staff from one to four. Two more positions were also added during this planning process in 2002. The now six-person staff addresses a variety of refuge projects, including recent conservation management projects such as:
- recruiting and training staff and volunteers;
- developing visitor facilities;
- coordinating shoreline stabilization and restoration of Pelican Island proper;
- coordinating habitat restoration and facility improvements on the barrier island to showcase Refuge System Centennial events (in March 2003) and to provide opportunities for on-sitewildlife viewing, environmental education, and cultural history interpretation;
- removing exotic, invasive, and nuisance species; and
- contributing to the recovery of federally threatened and endangered species (e.g., by posting refuge boundary signs and conducting patrols).
Fish, Wildlife, and Plant Populations
Pelican Island Refuge serves as a critical repository of gene pools, species, and communities that is very important to the overall contribution and health of the Indian River Lagoon and the South Florida Ecosystem. Named after the original pelican rookery that currently occupies a 2.8-acre lagoonal island and that serves as the focal point of the refuge, Pelican Island Refuge provides an important ecological niche for fish, wildlife, and plant species. The Service manages refuge resources and coordinates with neighboring land managers and agencies to conserve biological diversity in the Indian River Lagoon region.
The refuge serves as an important site for the recovery of federal and state listed threatened and endangered species. The refuge’s location and habitat features are important for the future of 14 federally listed threatened and endangered species, as well as for the future of 45 species listed by the State of Florida (see Appendix IV). Restoration efforts on the refuge, coupled with a combination of protected and managed public and private lands, could provide the necessary conditions for endangered species to live with minimal disturbance, despite the high level of human development and use in and around the refuge. Beyond the 14 federally listed species and despite limited data, the refuge is known to support hundreds of species of birds, mammals, reptiles and amphibians, fish, invertebrates, and plants, with many more species suspected to occur on the refuge.
Avian species are highly important wildlife resources identified on the refuge with more than 140 species of birds using the refuge as a nesting, roosting, feeding, or loafing area. At least 16 different species of birds nest on Pelican Island proper. And at least 39 bird species using the refuge are listed by federal or state governments, Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals, Florida Natural Areas Inventory, or Audubon WatchList. (Refer to Appendix IV for a listing of these birds.) The federally endangered wood stork is of special interest to Service managers. Wood stork populations have declined sharply in Florida, from 60,000 in the 1930s to 5,000 pairs today. Wood storks have been nesting on Pelican Island proper since 1950. The Pelican Island colony has been one of the most consistently active rookeries in the State of Florida (Rogers, Wenner, and Schwikert 1987). Currently, between 90 and 150 pairs of wood storks nest on Pelican Island proper each year.
At least 18 mammals are known to occur on the refuge: short-tailed shrew, least shrew, nine-banded armadillo, opossum, bobcat, river otter, eastern wood rat, cotton mouse, southeastern beach mouse, raccoon, black rat, gray squirrel, hispid cotton rat, spotted skunk, marsh rabbit, eastern cottontail, West Indian manatee, and bottlenose dolphin. The Lagoon is used extensively by Atlantic bottlenose dolphins and West Indian manatees and both are commonly seen on the refuge.
And 27 reptiles and amphibians are known to occur on the refuge: eight snakes, eight frogs and toads, five sea turtles, and three lizards, as well as the gopher tortoise, diamondback terrapin, and American alligator. As a juvenile sea turtle nursery, the lagoonal waters of the refuge serve critical needs for threatened and endangered sea turtles.
A variety of fish species also utilize the refuge. One hundred and six different fish species were identified in 1897 during the first fisheries survey ever conducted in the Lagoon (Evermann and Bean). Surveys conducted in 1994 (Gilmore 1995) listed 782 fish species for east central Florida, with at least half of this amount occurring at some point of their life history in the Indian River Lagoon. Over 200 fish species are known to occur on the refuge. One federally endangered fish species occurs on the refuge: smalltooth sawfish. In addition, the refuge supports 10 fish species listed by the State of Florida, Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals, or Florida Natural Areas Inventory, including sturgeon, pipefish, goby, rivulus, and snook. Other fish using the refuge include tarpon, spotted sea trout, flounder, black mullet, red and black drum, ladyfish, mackerel, and bluefish. The American eel also occurs on the refuge and is currently under consideration as a candidate for listing under the Endangered Species Act. And, although not federal or state listed, fat snook and tarpon snook are included in Florida’s Wildlife Legacy Initiative as part of Florida’s species of greatest conservation needs. Fish species within the refuge are important not only to commercial and recreational interests, but also to the ecology of the area. Important fish habitat, such as fish spawning and fish larvae settlement sites in the refuge, must be protected to ensure healthy, sustainable fish populations.
A wide variety of marine, freshwater, and terrestrial invertebrates are found within the refuge’s boundary. For example, the mangrove crab is found on the refuge and is listed by the Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals. Some of the more common invertebrates include conchs, snails, oysters, land crabs, dragonflies, butterflies, and cicadas.
Beyond wildlife species, the refuge supports an estimated 300 plant species, including 18 species listed by the federal government, State of Florida, Florida Committee on Rare and Endangered Plants and Animals, and/or Florida Natural Areas Inventory: giant leather fern, Curtiss’ milkweed, hand fern, Christmas berry, butterfly orchid, beach creeper, Johnson’s seagrass, crested coralroot, pineland lantana, Simpson stopper, shell mound prickly pear cactus, cinnamon fern, pepper, inkberry, inflated wild pine, giant wild pine, coastal vervain, and Tampa vervain.
